About this topic
The United Nations (UN) is best understood as the successor to the League of Nations. The League was built on the idea of collective security. Its failures shaped the Charter of the United Nations, which tried to cure each of the League's weaknesses.
This topic covers:
- the origin and structure of the League of Nations;
- the five main weaknesses of the League and the Charter's answer to each;
- the end of the League;
- the establishment of the UN and the structure of the Charter;
- the purposes of the UN (Article 1);
- the principal organs of the UN (Article 7);
- important examination facts: headquarters, membership, observer States, official languages and the Trusteeship Council.
Picture an engineer studying every crack in a collapsed bridge before building the next one. The League of Nations was the first bridge and the United Nations is the second. Each "crack" (weakness) in the League is matched by a provision of the Charter designed to seal it.
Three frequently asked questions are answered in these notes:
- The Charter has only five equally authentic texts, yet the UN has six official languages. Which language is the odd one out?
- An American President proposed the League of Nations. Why did his own country never join it?
- Which principal organ still stands in the Charter but has had nothing to supervise since 1994?
Origin of the League of Nations
Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)
On 8 January 1918, President Woodrow Wilson placed his Fourteen Points before the American Congress. The fourteenth point said:
"A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike."
Collective security: every State, strong or weak, is protected by all. This was the idea behind Wilson's fourteenth point and the League of Nations.
The Covenant of the League
- The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 turned Wilson's idea into the Covenant of the League of Nations.
- The Covenant was a binding agreement of just 26 Articles.
- It formed the first part of the Treaty of Versailles.
- The League was born when the Treaty of Versailles came into force on 10 January 1920.
- Seat of the League: Geneva.
Organs and work of the League
The League worked through three organs:
- an Assembly;
- a Council;
- a Secretariat.
Besides disarmament, the League handled drug trafficking, the arms trade and global health.
Weaknesses of the League and the Charter's response
The League suffered from five main weaknesses. For each of them, the Charter of the United Nations provides an answer.
1. No enforcement power (the League had "no teeth")
Position under the Covenant
Under Article 16(2) of the Covenant, the Council could only recommend what armed forces Members should contribute.
Because it could only recommend, the League could not stop Japan in Manchuria in 1931 or Italy in Ethiopia in 1935, and its sanctions against Italy were feeble.
The Charter's answer: Chapter VII
Article 25 says:
"The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter."
- Article 42 lets the Security Council use air, sea or land forces.
- Article 43 agreements were meant to place national forces at the Council's call. These agreements were never concluded, so there is still no United Nations army.
2. The unanimity rule
Position under the Covenant
Article 5(1) of the Covenant said:
"Except where otherwise expressly provided in this Covenant or by the terms of the present Treaty, decisions at any meeting of the Assembly or of the Council shall require the agreement of all the Members of the League represented at the meeting."
A single objection could therefore freeze everything.
The Charter's answer: voting
General Assembly (Article 18):
- Important questions are decided by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.
- Other questions are decided by a simple majority.
Security Council (Article 27): a decision needs nine votes.
- Procedural matters: any nine votes will do.
- All other matters: the nine votes must include the concurring votes of the permanent members.
- Exception: a party to a dispute must abstain in decisions under Chapter VI and under Article 52(3).
The requirement of the concurring votes of the permanent members is the veto. Unanimity was therefore not abolished by the Charter; it was only narrowed, from every Member (under the Covenant) to the five permanent members (under the Charter).
| Body | Voting rule |
|---|---|
| League Assembly and Council (Article 5(1), Covenant) | Agreement of all the Members of the League represented at the meeting (unanimity) |
| UN General Assembly (Article 18) | Important questions: two-thirds majority of members present and voting; other questions: simple majority |
| UN Security Council, procedural matters (Article 27) | Any nine votes |
| UN Security Council, all other matters (Article 27) | Nine votes including the concurring votes of the permanent members (veto); a party to a dispute abstains in decisions under Chapter VI and Article 52(3) |
3. Overlapping functions (a "blurred job description")
Position under the Covenant
Under Articles 3 and 4 of the Covenant, both the Assembly and the Council could deal with "any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world." Two bodies had one job, and there was no leader.
The Charter's answer
- Article 24 gives the Security Council "primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security".
- Under Article 12, the General Assembly cannot make a recommendation on a dispute the Security Council is handling, unless the Council asks.
4. Absence of major powers ("empty chairs")
Position under the League
- United States: never joined, because its Senate refused to approve the Treaty of Versailles.
- Soviet Union: entered only in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 for attacking Finland.
- Japan, Germany and Italy: all walked out in the 1930s.
The Charter's answer
The Charter seated both the United States and the Soviet Union as founding Members and as permanent members of the Security Council.
5. Double standard on equality
Position under the League
Britain and France steered the League while ruling vast colonial empires, so the League's talk of equal nations rang hollow.
The Charter's answer
Article 2(1) says:
"The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members."
- Article 1(2) adds the self-determination of peoples.
- A trusteeship system was built to guide some territories towards self-government or independence.
Weaknesses at a glance
| Weakness of the League | Position under the Covenant / League | Answer in the UN Charter |
|---|---|---|
| No enforcement power | Article 16(2): Council could only recommend armed forces; failed in Manchuria (1931) and Ethiopia (1935) | Chapter VII; Article 25 (Members agree to carry out Security Council decisions); Article 42 (air, sea or land forces); Article 43 agreements never concluded |
| Unanimity | Article 5(1): agreement of all Members represented at the meeting | Article 18 (two-thirds / simple majority in the General Assembly); Article 27 (nine votes in the Security Council, veto of permanent members) |
| Overlapping functions | Articles 3 and 4: both Assembly and Council could deal with any matter affecting the peace of the world | Article 24 (primary responsibility of the Security Council); Article 12 (General Assembly cannot recommend on a dispute the Council is handling unless the Council asks) |
| Absence of major powers | United States never joined; Soviet Union joined in 1934, expelled in 1939; Japan, Germany and Italy walked out in the 1930s | United States and Soviet Union seated as founding Members and permanent members of the Security Council |
| Double standard on equality | Britain and France steered the League while ruling colonial empires | Article 2(1) (sovereign equality); Article 1(2) (self-determination of peoples); trusteeship system |
The League could only ask, but the Security Council can decide, and every Member has agreed to carry out its decisions.
End of the League of Nations
- Weakened by these defects, the League gave way in 1939, when the Second World War began.
- It was formally wound up only on 20 April 1946.
- It handed its assets to the United Nations, which was by then already almost six months old.
Establishment of the United Nations
- The Charter was signed at San Francisco on 26 June 1945.
- Under Article 110, the Charter needed ratification by the five permanent members and a majority of the other signatories.
- This happened on 24 October 1945, which is now celebrated as United Nations Day.
Structure of the Charter: a Preamble, 19 Chapters and 111 Articles.
Purposes of the United Nations (Article 1)
Article 1 sets out the purposes of the UN. It begins: "The Purposes of the United Nations are:"
- Article 1(1), international peace and security: "To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace;"
- Article 1(2), friendly relations: "To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace;"
- Article 1(3), international co-operation: "To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and"
- Article 1(4), coordination: "To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends."
In short, the four purposes are peace, friendship, cooperation and coordination. The UN's humanitarian and development work grows from these purposes.
Principal organs of the United Nations (Article 7)
Article 7(1) sets up the machinery of the UN:
"There are established as principal organs of the United Nations: a General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, an International Court of Justice and a Secretariat."
Article 7(2) allows subsidiary organs to be set up as needed.
Each principal organ has its own Chapter in the Charter:
| Principal organ | Chapter of the Charter |
|---|---|
| General Assembly | IV (4) |
| Security Council | V (5) |
| Economic and Social Council | X (10) |
| Trusteeship Council | XIII (13) |
| International Court of Justice | XIV (14) |
| Secretariat | XV (15) |
Memory aid: think of the Chapters as 4, 5, then 10, then 13, 14, 15 (General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice, Secretariat).
Important facts for examinations
Headquarters and membership
- Headquarters: New York City.
- Membership: 193 States.
- Non-member observer States: two, the Holy See and the State of Palestine. They may join General Assembly debates but cannot vote.
Authentic texts and official languages
Article 111 says the "Chinese, French, Russian, English, and Spanish texts are equally authentic". Arabic came later, when the General Assembly made it an official language on 18 December 1973.
| Equally authentic texts of the Charter (Article 111) | Official languages of the UN |
|---|---|
| Five: Chinese, French, Russian, English and Spanish | Six: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish |
Arabic is the odd one out: it is one of the six official languages of the UN but not one of the five equally authentic texts of the Charter.
Why the United States never joined the League
Although President Wilson proposed the League of Nations, the American Senate refused to approve the Treaty of Versailles, and this kept his own country out of the League.
The Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council still stands in the Charter as a principal organ, but it has had nothing to supervise since 1994. It suspended its operations after Palau, the last trust territory, became independent in 1994.
Quick revision
- Article 111 makes only five texts of the Charter equally authentic (Chinese, French, Russian, English and Spanish). Arabic became an official language by decision of the General Assembly on 18 December 1973, so the six official languages are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
- President Wilson proposed the League, but the United States never joined because the American Senate refused to approve the Treaty of Versailles.
- The Trusteeship Council is the principal organ with nothing left to supervise: it suspended its operations after Palau, the last trust territory, became independent in 1994.
- The League could only ask, but the Security Council can decide, and every Member has agreed to carry out its decisions.
